Important Discoveries of Prehistoric Rock Paintings

February 3rd, 2007

Important Discoveries of Prehistoric Rock Paintings

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REGIONAL FEATURES OF THE ROCK ART SITE RECENTELLY DISCOVERED

February 3rd, 2007

Published at Purakala 16-17, 2006
Regional Features Of The Rock Art Site Recentelly Discovered In The Chhotanagpur Hills Of South Bihar And Adjoining Jharkhand

 

Introduction

While undergoing the AEC Young Officers course at Pachmarhi (M.P.) during the summer season of 1969 I got the opportunity to see some of the surrounding painted rock shelters. Observing striking similarities in flora, fauna and other geographical features of Pachmarhi and that of the Chhotanagpur region of Nawada district in Bihar I had strong feeling / intuition that there must be paintings in the caves / rock shelters of the forested hills of Nawada and the adjoining area also. Having keen interest in History and intense love for nature I had been exploring this area since my School and College days during vacations. Now I started looking for rock paintings in the granite caves / rock shelters of this region during my annual leaves. But luck did not favour easily. It took almost 24 years when I discovered 3 rock shelters with prehistoric / historic rock painting during the winter seasons of 1993-94 in the extremely remote, inaccessible and dangerous forested hills of Ranigadar – a tribal village in Kowakol Block of Nawada district in Bihar. During the next winter season of 1994-95, I discovered 11 more painted rock shelters in the same region as well as in the adjoining area forming part of Jamui, Giridih and Kodarma districts. With the support of the Indian Army two more expeditions were carried out by me during the summer seasons of 1996 and 1997. No further expeditions could be undertaken thereafter due to a serious leg injury sustained during the last phase of the 1997 expedition. A total number of 86 rock shelters/caves containing prehistoric & historic paintings as well as ancient rock inscriptions have so far been discovered in this region forming part of Nawada and Jamui districts in Bihar and the adjoining districts of Giridih and Kodarma in the recently created Jharkhand State.

 

This important rock art region shares some common features with other Indian rock art sites regarding use of pigments, canvas and superimposition but it has several special and unique features in terms of subject matter, style of depiction etc. However, before describing these special regional features I would like to give a brief account of this rock art region in general i.e. its geomorphology, subject matter of the paintings, colour scheme and technique, arechaeological evidences etc.

LOCATION OF THE ROCK ART SITE

The site of discovery lies between Latitude 24º40′ to 24º53′ North and Longitude 85º41′ to 86º7′ East in the northern foothills of the Chota Nagpur Plateau. The nearest railhead is Nawada, the district town on the Gaya- Kieul rail section of Eastern Railway and the nearest road-head is Kowakol (40 km south east of Nawada), a Block and Police Station in the same district. Though condition of the road is very bad presently, the frequency of buses & minibuses on this road is quite good. Kowakol is also connected by road with Jamui (Mallepur) on the Patna- Howrah rail section (Location Map attached).

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES

Geographically this region lies in the north eastern part of the Chhota Nagpur plateau- the northern extension of the Vindhyan ranges. This plateau is the meeting point of the oldest rock formation like granite and gneiss and the comparatively young Vindhyan sandstones, and the volcanic basalt (Sankalia, H.D. 1974). There are several folded hill ridges running east to west with narrow valleys and ‘tanrs’ (uplands). Elevation of the hilltops varies between 300 m and 677 m. The entire area is hilly and densely forested drained by the south north flowing Kiul and Sakari rivers and their tributaries. Besides several seasonal nallah / stream flowing in different directions there are numerous perennial water points and springs providing water to the tribal population as well as the wild animals throughout the year.

GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS

This rock art region comprises geological formations of Archaean to Proterozoic age in the southern part and the Quaternary formations of Pleistocene to Recent age in the central and northern parts. Archaean to Proterozoic rocks constitute the Chhotanagpur Gneissic complex which comprise metamorphic and igneous rocks like quartz-mica sehist, mica sehist, calc silicate rock, quartzite, amphibolite / horndblende sehist, granite gneiss, porphyroblastic granite neiss / augen gneiss, intrusive granites, pegmatite / quartz vein and dolerite. The southern part of the region forms a part of the famous Kodarma Mica Belt. (Geological survey of India’s District Resource Map, 2001 AD) Mica has been the most important mineral product from these pegmatites. Other minerals of pegmatite being economically used in various industries are feldspar, quartz, beryl, tourmaline, garnet etc. Many of the rock types such as quartzite, amphibolite, granite gneiss, porphyroblastic / augen gneiss, intrusive granite, pegmatite / quartz vein and dolerites may be utilized for various purposes, such as, quartzite is useful in road metal and river banks appron to protect them from erosion; amphibolite, dolerite, granite neiss, porthyroblastic / augen gneiss and intrusive granite may be utilized as dimension stones.

 

Many parts on the plateau slope are prone to soil erosion. The district is also prone to mild earthquake shocks and has experienced Isoseismals VII and V on modified Mercalli scale during the earthquakes of 1934 and 1988 respectively.

The painted rock shelters containing prehistoric / historic paintings, and rock inscriptions are located mainly in the Granite-gneiss regions forming part of Nawada, Giridih, Kodarma districts and also in the cavities of the highly weathered metamorphic rocks in Jamui district which include various schist reaching upto sillimanite grade of metaorphism together with quartzite and quartz sericite schist forming persistent bands.

CLIMATE

Climate of this region is the typical monsoon type. Normally the monsoon starts around 15 June and continues till September. Winter season is mild and generally pleasant during the day. The summer season is dry and very hot. It starts in April and reaches its peak around 15 May when heat waves blow during the day for the next 20 days or so. It was rather surprising to observe that most of the sunstroke cases amongst the members of my expedition team during the summer season of 1997 took place in the morning around 8:30 a.m. and not around the noon. It was also noticed that over a period of 10 years or so the summer in this region is becoming less severe. The nights are generally pleasant though the days are extremely hot.

FAUNA

A large number of wild animals are still found in the forested areas especially the foothills. These wild animals include tiger (panthera tigris), leopard (panthera pardus), sloth bear (melursus ursinus), swamp deer (cervus duvauceli), nilgai (boselamphus tragocamelus), muntjac (muntiacus muntjak), wolf (canis lupus), monkey (macaca sp.), hyna (hyaena hyaena), fox (vulpes bengalensis), lungur (presbytis entellus) wild dog (cuon alpinus), rabbit (Oryctolagus), hare (lepus nigriscollis), mongoose, porcupine, black buck (antelope cervicapra), Jackal (Canis aureus) etc. A variety of birds found in this forested region include peacock (pavo cristatus), owl, parrot (bubo bubo), fowl (gallus gallus), eagle, falcon, partridge, hawk, vulture, dove, harial and several types of other eatable wild birds. The area is also infested with deadly cobras, karaits, vipers, pythons and many other varieties of poisonous and non-poisonous snakes as well as scorpions. During the expedition we often came across bears, wild boars, antelopes, deer as well as cobras, karaits and scorpions and occasionally tigers and leopards. The number of big cats has drastically reduced during the last 10-15 years mainly due to poachers from Rajasthan. The reduction in the tiger population has resulted in unusual high growth of wild boars, bears, deer & antelopes, adversely affecting the agricultural aspect of the tribal economy. It is very interesting to know that the most feared animal for the brave tribals is not the tiger but it is the bear due to its short temper. I met many tribals during the expeditions who were badly mauled by the bears.

FLORA

The entire area is hilly and densely forested mainly with sal trees (Shorea robusta). Other trees found are tendu (diospyros), mahua (bassia latifolia), khair (acacia catechu), aonla (phyllanthus emblica), ber (zizyphus jujuba), bahera (terminalia belerica), bamboo (dondrocalamus strictus), Jamun (eugenia jambolana), semal (bambaz malabarieum), bel (aegle marmelos), kari (holharrena antidysenteria), khirni (mimusops hexandra), palas (buteafrondosa), gular (ficus glomeratha), mango (mangifera indica), piar, kalonda, wild variety of burgad etc. In addition to the wild fruits various edible tubers, roots, seeds, leaves, flowers and wild vegetables are also available throughout the year. It was very painful to observe some local tribals and also people from the neighboring areas felling the huge branches and even the entire tree for quickly and easily obtaining silk cotton, bahera seeds, chironji etc instead of plucking the latter from the respective trees.

POPULATION

The area is a tribal belt and very thinly populated. The Santhals are the main inhabitants. On periphery of the forest are small villages of Bhullas/ Kharwars and Ghatwars. Birhores in small bands can also be seen moving from one place to another. They still lead primitive Stone Age life style in this region and entirely depend on hunting of small wild animals and collection of forest products. Government’s efforts to motivate them to lead settled life has not met with much success. Though the Santhals and Bhullas have made agriculture and cattle rearing as their main occupation, hunting of small animals & birds and collection of the forest products continue to be one of the important and very interesting aspect of their daily routine. During the expedition I frequently noticed the tribals carrying axes, bow & arrows and going deep to the forest accompanied by their dogs for such activities.

In addition to having their own deities and rituals, the Santhals have also adopted some Hindu deities and festivals. Some of the tribals have also adopted Christianity in Sokhwa village of Jamui district where a Christian Mission is located. Though the tribal population in general has been able to maintain its own cultural identity, the new generation is showing keen interest in adopting modern ways of life especially in terms of dress and food habits etc. During my visit to Gaighat, a remote tribal village, in 1967 I had found the men almost naked wearing only langoti covering their private parts and the women using small saries to cover their waist and keeping the upper portion of the body including the breast completely uncovered. But today people of this village wear the same dress as worn by the non-tribal population outside the forest belt.

SUITABILITY OF THE ROCK SHELTERS/CAVES FOR HABITATION

This rock art region, endowed with a regular supply of food, water, shelter and raw material for making tools must have been a ‘paradise’ for the Stone Age man. Even now one can survive on the wild fruits, roots, tubers and small animals & birds found in abundance in this region throughout the year. During the expeditions we found most of the rock shelters/caves so comfortable even at the time when hot waves were blowing in the area. The ideal location and existence of the basic requirements for habitation in terms of food, water, protection/observation in and around the rock shelters must have been very tempting to the prehistoric man. There is no wonder that presently these rock shelters/ caves are either occupied by the dacoits as hiding places or by the wild animals and reptiles. Even the MCC cadres have found this region as the most ideal place for them since the summer season of 1996.

ROCK ART

Rock art of this region consists of pictographs (rock paintings) as well as petroglyphs (engraving, carving, bruising, dotting and cup marks). Pictographs are found on the walls and ceilings of the naturally formed granite rock shelters/ caves in the Nawada & Jamui districts of Bihar and the adjoining area in Giridih and Kodarma districts of the recently created state of Jharkhand. The petroglyphs are found mainly on open boulders and also some painted rock shelters in form of cup marks and engraved figures.

ROCK PAINTINGS (PICTOGRAPHS)

Rock shelters/caves mainly formed of huge granite boulders are found in clusters. Normally only one of the most suitable rock shelter/cave (in rare cases more than one or two) for rituals/ other group activities was selected for painting by the primitive man. Paintings on walls were mostly done horizontally while on the ceilings these have been executed in almost all directions. Painted figures are of various sizes from 4½ cm to 113 cm. Most of the big figures are of the geometrical designs, symbols and trees/ plants, (R.S. XVII-A.5, I.A.8, X.B.1, VI. A.1, III.A.1, XI.B.I etc).

Petroglyphs in form of cup marks have been found in many painted rock shelters in Nawada and Jamui districts of Bihar (RS XVI.A.11, XVI. B.1, VI.A.1, VI. A.2, XVI. A.5, XVI.B.1etc). Engraved deep lines and figures of fish are found in some shelters (RS. XVI. A.11, I. A. 8 etc). Engraved humped bulls and other animal figures have been found on a huge granite boulder inside the Rajabar Protected forest in Kodarma district. Engraved figures of elephants, deer, peacock as well as Buddha (Protected by the Muchalindi Naga) have also been discovered on the open rock surfaces in the Mirganj forest of Satgama Block in the same district. The cup marks are in a series of parallel lines (RS.XVI. A.11) and also in a combination of cupules or independent ones (RS. XI. A.4, VI. A.1, VI.A.2 etc).

Engravings

The technique of engraving and filling in the grooves with colour is found in some of the rock shelters like rock art of Sundergarh and Sambalpur districs in Orrisa and at Bainete Banda in Andhra Pradesh. In the adjoining area in district of Kodarma (Jharkhand) there are several rare engraved figures of Humped Bulls (Harappan style) antelopes and other animals (yet to be identified) on a huge granite boulder near a perennial water source at Rajabar (XIV.A). These engraved bull figures, according to Dr. A. Sundara have striking similarities with the engravings found at Holaluru and Haraketi in Shimoga district town of Karnataka. Existence of these engraved Harappan type Bulls on a Granite boulder is a very rare feature of this rock art region.

Cup Marks (Cupules)

Cup marks have been found in several rock shelters of this rock art region (R.S. XVI.A.11, VIA.4, VI.A.2, VI.A.1, II.A.1, XI.A.1, XVI.B.1 etc). These are in form of cupules forming a series of parallel lines, deep lines, in form of a circle or cone and geometrical designs. The Cup marks are of various sizes. The largest one measures 16.5 Cm. in diameter and 11 Cms in depth. In RS XVI.A.11 there are 137 cupules in three lines. The shelters/caves containing cupules are described below :-

RS XVI.A.11

This is a medium sized rock shelter having a platform in the front. On top of it there are 137 cupmarks in tow/three rows. Diameter of the largest cupmark is 6.5 cms and its depth 0.4 cm. The smallest cupmark’s diameter is 1.5 cms.

RS XVI.B.1

It has one big and three small cupmarks on the wall. Diameter of the biggest cupmark is 16.5 cms and its depth 11 cms.

RS XVI.A.4

There are nine cupmarks on its wall. Some of these are conical.

RS VI.A.1

There is a huge boulder in the southern part of the shelter/cave. It has nine cupmarks in a row on its top. Diameter of each cupmark is 11 cms while depth is 4 cms.

RS VI.A.2

This shelter has fifteen cupmarks. The largest one measures 10 cms in diameter and 3.5 cms in depth. The smallest one’s diameter is 5.5 cms and depth 2.3 cms.

RS XI.A.1

It contains seven cupmarks. The largest one measures 11.5 cms in diameter and 2.2 cms in depth.

DOCUMENTATION OF THE PAINTED ROCK SHELTERS/ CAVES/OPEN ROCK SURFACES

Out of the 96 painted rock shelters/caves/ open rock surfaces discovered so far 86 rock shelters/rock surfaces have been meticulously documented. These have been divided into 18 geographical/topographical areas (I to XVII and XXV). Each area has further been subdivided into clusters or group of shelters named alphabetically i.e. A,B,C etc. Within each group the individual shelters/caves/open rock surfaces have been numbered i.e. 1,2,3,4 etc. Thus each painted/ engraved rock shelter/open rock surface has a three-tiered number written on the wall/ adjacant surface in black paint, for example, XVI.A.7. In doing so I have followed VS Wakankar’s system of classification initially adopted by him in the Bhimbetka region (Wakankar, 1976). Due precaution has been taken not to put any classification number on or near any painting/engraving. All the rock shelters/ caves have been measured. Meticulous tracing of the painted figures of most of the rock shelters/caves has been done on the cellophane sheets. Very high quality photography of the paintings/engravings has been done personally by me. Use of flash gun has been avoided except in a few cases where it was unavoidable. A young videographer ultimately agreed after a lot of persuasion to do videography of majority of the painted rock shelters in this extremely difficult and dangerous terrain.

SIZE OF THE ROCK SHELTERS / CAVES

The painted rocks shelters/caves are of different sizes. The largest cave measures 100.10 meters in length, 7 m in depth, 7.1 m in height (RS XVII-B. 1), while the smallest painted shelter measures only 4.78 m in length, 4.03 meters in depth and 0.80 meter in height (RS.II.C.5).

SUBJECT MATTER OF THE PAINTINGS/ENGRAVINGS

One of the most unique features of the rock art of this region is the predominance of intricate/geometric designs and symbols. Each and every painted rock shelter/cave of this rock art region invariably contains some geometric designs/ symbols. These symbols include variations/ combinations of circles, squares, rectangles, wheel (chakra), cross etc. The geometric designs comprise of grids, zigzags, dots, chevrons, curves, nested curves, triangles and rectangles. The intricate designs include rhombic meanders, concentric circles, spirals and their variants covering large space (RS.XI-B.1, XI. A.1, II. A.1, II. C. 2, II. A. 2, II. D.2, XXV. A.2, XI.C.1, XXV. A.1, XVI. A.5, XVI. A.6, XVI. A.7, VIII. A.1, IX. A.1, X. B.1, XVII. A.5, II.C.5, III. A.2, I.A. 8, XVI. B.1, XVII. A.5etc).

Humans are next in order. They have been depicted as hunting, dancing and standing behind animals in victorious postures. Shamans/wizards and occasionally mother goddesses have also been depicted in several rock shelters/caves (II. C. 2, I.A. 8, IX. B.1, I. B.2, II. A.2, III.A.1, XVI.A.7, IX. A.1, XI. A.1, II. C.5, II. D.2, III.B.1,IV.A.2,XVII. B.1, XI.B.1, XI.C.1, V.B.1, VIII.A.1, II.A.3 etc). The anthropomorphs are normally shown with upraised arms, wide spread legs and very big phalluses (I.A. 8, II. A. 3, IX.A.1etc).

Third in sequence are animals, birds, plants, and insects. The wild animals depicted in the rock paintings/engravings include antelope, elephant, tiger, deer, boar, bison, monkey etc. Domesticated animals include horse, dog, humped bulls etc. It is very surprising that depiction of cattle is hardly found in the painted rock shelters/caves so far discovered by me in this region. The animals are shown in association with humans generally doing ritualistic hunting or dancing. Depiction of actual hunting scenes are very rare. Humans are normally shown standing behind wild animals with weapons or upraised arms in victorious postures. We also get various types of symbols/geometrical signs associated with the animals (I.A.8, I. B.2, II. A.2, VI. A.1, X. B.1, XVI.A.7, XVII. A.5, XVI.A.9, XI. B.1, XI. C.1, V.B.1 etc). In one of the caves six elephant figures are shown each with humans standing behind with upraised arms. (RS.1.A.8). Engraved figures of elephants are also found on the boulders/open rock surfaces (XV.A.3, XV.A.4). In some cases even animals are shown with their phalluses prominently (R.S.I.A.8).

Reptiles find an important place in the rock art of this region. These mainly include lizards and snakes. (RS.I.A. 8, IV-A.1, X. B.1, II. D.2, XAI. XVII. A.5 etc). Frequent depiction of snakes in several painted rock shelters/caves is a unique feature of this region’s rock art. This may be remotely related to the development of the Naga Cult in the eastern region. Excessive presence of snakes in this area may also be one of the reasons for overwhelming depiction of snakes.

Plants and trees also find important place in the rock art of this region. These have generally been depicted in natural as well as symbolic forms (RS. XVI.A.5, I. A.8, III. A.1, VI.A.1, XI. B.1, XVI. A.7, XXV. A.2 etc).

Birds shown in the paintings include peacock, eagle, vulture, bat and an unidentified bird with very large body and long neck (I.A.8, I.B.2, XVI. A. 12, XI. A.1, IV. A.2 etc).

Depiction of insects is rare in rock art (Neumayer, E. 1994-95). However, we find depiction of some insects quite prominently such as beetle, centipede, bees etc in some of the painted rock shelters of this region (IV. A.1, I A.8 etc).

Out of the animals, reptiles and birds mentioned above, bison and elephant have already become extinct in this region. Tigers and leopards, found in abundance till 30 yeas back have now become rare, though their presence in very small numbers is still felt in the foothills. However, due to reduction in the tiger/ leopard population number of wild boar and bear has increased substantially. Snakes and scorpions are still found in abundance. Number of antelope, deer, hare/rabbits and edible birds has reduced drastically. Vultures, eagle, hawk and crow, so common in this area are occasionally seen now.

Handprints, both negative and positive, found in other rock art sites are also found in the painted rock shelters of this region (VIA.1,XVI.A.7).

Cup marks of different sizes and shapes are also found in several painted rock shelters (RS. XVI. A.11, XVI. B.1, VI. A.2, VI. A.1, XVI. A.4, etc).

Last but not the least, the rock inscriptions in Brahmi, Kharoshti, Kharoshti- Brahmi and Shankh scripts form an important subject matter of this region’s rock art. The Kharoshti Inscription with novel arrangement of the letters and their elongated appearance around a circle found in RS.II.A.2 is a piece of calligraphic art (Mukherji, B.N. 1997). The inscription found in several painted rock shelters are paleographically dated from 2nd century B.C. to 9th century A.D. (R.S. IV.A.1, III.A.2, II. A.2 ,I.A.2, I.B.2 XVII. A.5, XXV. A.2, XVII. A.2, XVI.A. 8, XVI. A.9, XVI. 10 etc) .Some of these inscriptions are of great importance having important bearings on the history of India (Mukherjee, B.N. 1997).

Thus, the subject matter of the rock art of this region is very vidid, interesting, unique and rare in many aspects.

COLOUR SCHEME AND TECHNIQUE

This region has paintings almost in all colours used in the rock art. The main mineral colour used is the haematiod red in different shades ranging from orange, vermilion, light red, crimson to brown and purple as also applied in other rock art sites in India. Other mineral colours used are white, black, yellow and green including blue colour. Use of blue colour in one of the rock shelters is a very unique feature of this region’s rock art (RS. XXV. A.2).

The red colour was obtained from nodules of iron oxide (locally known as ‘geru’) which is found in this region in abundance. Some pieces of used geru have been found inside the floor of some painted rock shelters (RS.I.A.8, II.A.2 etc). Yellow and green colours were derived from mineralized chalcedony of the respective colours. Black colour was obtained from nodules of manganese oxides. White colour was obtained from the lime nodules found in certain locations of this region. The rare raw material for the blue colour azurite (Lapis Lazuli) found in Badakshana region of the Hindukush mountains in Afganistan might have been brought by the traders from that region on their way to Tamralipti. Most probably one of the ancient forest trade routes connecting Bodhgaya / Patliputra to the famous seaport Tamralipti (present Talmluk in West Bengal) passed through the above mentioned Rock shelter XXV.A.2.

The most dominant colour used in the paintings of this rock art region is brownish red. Like other parts of India the older are the paintings the darker is the colour. Ochre red is the next one, which dominated the later paintings. Next in sequence is white colour used in neolithic/chalcolilhic paintings (RS. I.A. 8, XVI. A.7, VI. A.1, III. A.2, XXV. A.2 etc). Use of black colour is found in the early painting as well as historical paintings (RS.IV.A.1,I.A.8, XXV. A.2etc). Ochre red, white and black colours have been used in writing the rock inscriptions of early historical period. In some of the rock shelters beautiful bichrome and polychrome paintings are also found (RS. XVI.A.7,1.A.8, XXV.A.2 etc). Green colour has hardly been used except in one rock shelter (RS. XVI. A.9) which contains some extremely faded paintings in this colour. However, use of blue colour in painted rock shelter XXV.A.2 is quite rare and unique.

The paintings have been executed in various colour techniques including stencil or spray technique (RS. XXV. A.2, IX. A.1). Various styles have been adopted in depiction of human and animal figures as found in the rock art of other regions i.e. naturalistic, schematic and decorative (Mesolithic), conventionalized (Neolithic- Chalcolithic) and electic or historical. However, predominance of symbols and intricate/geometric designs is a special feature of the upper Palaeolithic art of this region.

The animals are shown in profile while the human motifs are in frontal postures excepts in a few shelters/caves where some humans have also been shown in profile (RS. III.B.1, X.A.1.I.A.8). Though stick shaped figures are not uncommon, the typical ‘S’ twist figures found in the Central Indian rock art is absent in this region. X-ray style (showing invisible inner organs of the body) is also not found here. Natural bulges of the rock have been frequently used to enhance the realism of figures especially eyes in depiction of animals. It appears that the vigour and dynamism of the Central Indian paintings is generally missing in execution of the human motifs even in the Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic paintings of this region.

Superimpositions

Superimpositions are found in many painted rock shelters/caves (I.A.8, III. A.1, III. A.2, VI. A.1,II. A.1, X. B.1, XIII. A. 1, XVI. A.11, XI.A.1,XVI.B.1,XXV.A.1,XXV.A.2 etc). The Mesolithic paintings are superimposed over Upper Palaeolithic, Neolithic on Mesolithic ones and early historical on the Mesolithic or Neolithic paintings. Ancient inscriptions are also superimposed over Mesolithic and Neolithic paintings. Sometimes even inscriptions of late phase of early historical period are superimposed over the inscription of early phase of early historical period. (RS.IV.A.1,III. A.2etc).

ENCRUSTATION

Many Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic paintings are found under thick encrustation (II.A.1, X.B.I, I.A. 8, XVI.A.11,XIII. A.1etc). Even some of the neolithic and early historical paintings are under thin encrustation (III. A.2, IV. A.1, VI. A.1, I. B. 2, III. A.1 etc).

PHYSICAL CONDITION OF THE PAINTED ROCK SHELTES/ CAVES/ OPEN ROCK SURFACES

Physical condition of most of the painted rock shelters/ caves/ open rock surfaces is quite bad though some of the paintings in well protected spots/ hollows are in surprisingly good condition (II. A.2, II. C.2, I.B.2, XVI.A.7, III. A.1 etc). Bad state of preservation is due to various factors such as rainwater, hot sunlight, wind, temperature variations, humidity, overgrowth of tree roots, micro flora (lichens, bacteria, fungi, mosses and algae) and micro fauna (termites, insects, birds and bats). Luckily there was no threat from human vandalism till recently as the people were not aware of the existence of the rock art in the region. The biggest danger to the rock art here is from the uncontrolled flow of rainwater and overgrowth of the mighty trees such as wild variety of bargad and pipal etc over the painted rock shelters. It is very painful to see the majority of this invaluable rock art in such badly damaged condition. Some of the paintings and petroglyphs are likely to be lost forever. In certain painted rock shelters roofs have developed cracks and the ceilings are chipped off either due to penetrating roots or direct water-flow through the cracks. These parts containing prehistoric paintings may collapse anytime destroying the rare paintings forever (RS. II.C.5, XI. C.1. II, B.1, XVI. B.1 etc).

Immediate remedial measures must be taken for preservation/ conservation of this rare national art treasure. Experiments done to preserve the Australian rock art have proved quite successful. Since India shares similar geographical environment, the same methods and techniques, duly modified should also be adopted for preservation of the Indian rock art.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCES FROM THE PAINTED ROCK SHELTERS/CAVES

a large number of Palaeolithic, Mesolithic & Neolithic tools, potsherds, charcoal and bone pieces have been found in and around the painted rock shelters/ caves of this rock art site. The Stone Age tools have also been found in the surrounding areas especially in and around the perennial streams and open uplands. Used pieces of geru have been recovered from inside the painted rock shelters/caves along with microliths (RS.I.A.8, II.A.2. etc) Richness of this region in stone age tools is evident from the fact that 13 stone age tool factories have been found in the area forming part of Nawada, Jamui & Giridih districts.

STONE AGE TOOLS

The Stone Age tools found in this region include various types of Lower Palaeolithic, Middle Palaeolithic Upper Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic tools. The lower Palaeolithic tools comprise of heavy choppers, hand axes, cleavers, side scrapers, descoids and side scrapers. These are made of quartzite and occasionally quartz both easily available in this region. Some used hand axes and descoids have also been recovered from inside the painted rock shelters (RS. III. A. 2, II. D.2, II. A. 4 etc). The finished tools reflect a developed technology and the cores are with the evidence of controlled technique. The Middle Palaeolithic tools found in this area are typical of the type found in Eastern India during the last part of Pleistocene stage until the appearance of microliths during the Holocene period. These include small hand axes, choppers, side scrapers, points, blades, cores, and borers. Quartzite remained the principal raw material. Upper Palaeolithic tools have also been found in and around the painted rock shelters/ caves which include burins, backed blades, awls, points, small choppers and scrapers. Raw materials are chert and quartz besides quartzite.

The microliths are found in/ around almost all the painted rock shelters/caves in huge quantity. These have a general resemblance to Mesolithic cultural stage. In all probability there was continuity in microlithic tradition into later cultural phases in the area. The area appears to be a factory as well as habitational site for microlithic tradition. Huge quantity of waste flakes and blades, byproducts of total manufacture as well as large numbers of cores are evidence for tool making activities. The microliths are mainly made on quartz and occasionally on crystal and chert. The microliths include blades (both simple sharp backed types and blunted backed types), burins, points (both simple and tanged types), owl, side scrapers, end scrapers, thumbnail scrapers, borer, lunate, trapeze, flakes and fluted cores. A large number of microliths have been recovered from several painted rock shelters (RS I.A.8, IIIA. 2, III.B.1 etc).

Some Neolithic tools have also been found in the vicinity of the tribal village Jharanwa (Nawada district) and Sokhwa (Jamui district) near the painted rock shelters II. A.1., II.C.2. and XVI. A. 5 respectively. The tools include celt, ring stone, fabricator, mill stone and muller. These are made on basalt, dolerite and porphyrite.

In addition to the Neolithic tools pieces of metal slag have also been found in certain areas which indicate indigenous use of early metal technique (RS. III. A.1).

POTSHERDS

Potsherds of various types have been found in several painted rock shelters/caves. These include Black & Red Ware, Red Ware, Black Ware etc. Some of the potsherds contain beautiful designs (RS. I.A. , VI.A.1, III.A., III.A.2, XI.A.1, XI. B.1, XVII.A.5, XVI.A.5, XVII.B.1etc). Few hopscotch made of clay and also stone have been found inside some painted rock shelter/caves (RS. XVII.B.1, I.A.8 etc).

BONE PIECES, CHARCOAL, SEEDS

Bone pieces of animals and birds, charcoal and burnt seeds have been found from inside some painted rock shelters/ caves (I.A.8, III.A.1, XVII.A.5, VI.A.1, III.A.2 etc). As per preliminary assessment some of these pieces are of Harappan antiquity and even earlier.

BUDDHIST ANLIQUITIES

Three painted rock shelters/caves in Jogia complex (south of the ruins of the ancient city of Dewangarh in Nawada district) were used by the Buddhists as monasteries (RS.VI.A., VI.B. and VI.A.2). Some fragmented clay tablets depicting Buddha have been recovered from RS. VI.A.1. Three of them contain Beej mantra in Brahmi scripts. A terracotta seal and some clay seals have also been found which contain inscriptions in Brahmi and Kharoshti-Bramhmi datable to 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th /10th century AD (deciphered by Prof. B.N. Mukherjee). Obviously during the historical period these natural caves/shelters were in use continuously at least from 2nd century AD to 10th century AD.

MEGALITHS

The rock art region also has some megalith sites at Dania Forest (Nawada district) near painted rock shelter V.A. 1, Dand Mahadev (Sokhodewara forest, district Nawada) and near Garhi Dam (Jamui district).

REGIONAL FEATURES OF THE ROCK ART REGION

Rock art of this region has some common features in respect of use of colours, style, state of preservation, subject matter with the rock art of other regions of India as well as abroad. However, due to geographical, climatic and various other regional factors it has some special features and an identity of its own. These special regional features are described below-

  1. Rock shelters / caves made of granite boulders are found in large numbers especially in the hilly areas forming part of Nawada, Jamui (Bihar) and Giridih (Jharkhand) districts. But it is surprising to observe that only one rock shelter / cave out the entire cluster (which containes a large number of rock shelters / caves) was chosen by the Primitive Man for making paintings. We don’t find any rock painting in the neighbouring rock shelters. This tradition of executing paintings only in one selected rock shelter out of the entire cluster was generally followed during the subsequent periods including the historical period. The rock shelter selected for painting was normally very safe comfortable and well protected. It also provided excellent observation of animal movements in the area. We normally find a large open space in front of such painted rock shelters. There is a invariably water source near by and a lot of wild animals, fruit bearing trees / shrubs in the vicinity. This pattern of selecting only a single rock shelter / cave in a cluster of caves is a unique feature of this rock art region which distinguishes it from other Indian rock art sites.

  2. Another unique feature of the rock art of this region is the predominance of the intricate / geometrical designs and a large variety of symbols. Symbols / geometrical designs are invariably found in each and every painted rock shelter / cave of this rock art region. In this aspect it differs from the cave art of Europe which is mainly zoomorphic and the rock art of Spanish-Levant, South Africa and Central India which have an almost equal percentage of human and animal figures. It also differs from the rock art of Chambal valley where animals are the most frequent subject matter (Kumar G., 1992) and that of Mirzapur (Tiwari R., 1990) and Kumaon Himalyas (Mathpal Y., 1995) where human figures constitute the main body of the painted motifs. In this aspect the rock art of this region is to some extent comparable to the rock art of Orissa (Sundargarh and Sambalpur districts) and also Hazaribagh (Isko) where the most eye – striking features of the paintings are the overwhelming geometric patterns with intricate designs of many variations (Neumyer E., 1994-95).

  3. Though the stick type human figures are found in some of the painted rock shelters / caves of the region, the ‘S’ type figures, so common in Central Indian rock art, are absent here. Instead of dynamism and vigour of the ‘S’ type figures we generally find some sort of rigidity even in the Mesolithic paintings of the region. In this aspect it is comparable to the rock art of Mirzapur, Orrisa and Andhra Pradesh (Chandromouli, N. 1994) and other rock art sited of South India (Neumayer, E. 1993).

  4. Another peculiar feature is absence of depiction of cattle and other domesticated animals in this region’s rock paintings, which is invariably present in other Indian rock art sites including the Hemgiri region of Orrisa. In this respect it is comparable to the rock paintings of Hazaribagh district (Jharkhand).

  5. There are several hunting scenes in the paintings of this region but it is surprising to observe that like the rock art of the Chambal valley the archers have not been shown engaged in actual hunt which is so much common phenomenon in the Central Indian paintings (Kumar, G. 1992). Here the hunting scenes are primarily ritualistic in nature (RS.II.C.2, XI.C.1, I.A.8 etc).

  6. Engraved figures of more than eight Humped Bulls on a massive open granite rock surface near a perennial water source in the Rajabar P.F. in Kodarma district is another important feature of the rock art region. These are much resemblance between these engraved bull figures and those found at Holaluru in Shimoga district of Karnataka (A. Sundra, 2002).

  7. Rock paintings in blue colour are extremely rare in rock art. Use of blue colour in one of the painted rock shelters (XXV.A.2) is a unique feature of this region’s rock art. Blue colour is obtained from the nodules of azurite (Lapis Lazuli), which is found only in Badakshana in Hindu Kush mountains (S.P. Gupta, Personal communication).

  8. Painting of a ‘Garuda-Dhawaj’ in red, white and black colours on the wall of RS.III.A.2 indicating influence from Gandhara is another important feature of this rock art region.

  9. Brahmi / Shankh inscriptions in small numbers are found in the painted rock shelters of some other Indian rock art sites. However, in this rock art region not only Brahmi and Shankh inscriptions but also Kharoshti and Brahmi-Kharoshti inscriptions are found on a very large scale (RS.II.A.2, III.A.2., IV.A.1, VI.A.1, X.B.1, I.A.8, I.B.2, XVI.A.11, XVII.A.5, XXV.1.2 etc.). In this respect this rock art site is perhaps the richest site in India.

  10. Another peculiar feature is absence of depiction of cattle and other domesticated animals in this region’s rock paintings, which is invariably present in other Indian rock art sited including the Hemgiri region of Orrisa. In this respect it is comparable to the rock paintings of Hazaribagh district (Jharkhand).

  11. Phallic human figures are rare in Indian rock art sites but it is very common in the paintings of this region. The humans / Shamans are generally shown with unusually long phalluses. Occasionally even animals have been depicted with phalluses prominently (RS.I.A.8, II.A.3, IX.A.1 etc.).

  12. Frequent depiction of snakes in several rock shelters / caves of this region (RSIV.A.1, X.B.1 etc.) is also one of its special features. Development of the ‘Naga Cult’ in Bihar and subsequently in whole of India may have remote links with such paintings of this rock art site. Frequent depiction of other reptiles and insects lizards, beetle etc.) is another unique feature of this rock art site (RS.IV.A.1, XVII.A.5, X.A.1. II.D.2 etc.)

  13. A group of six elephants with phalluses and comparatively bigger tails has been depicted in rock paintings in cave I.A.8 (Giridih district of Jharkhand). Figures of elephants are also found engraved on the open rock surfaces in the Meerganj Protected Forest in Kodarama district of Jharkhand. The elephants have become extinct in this region though small herds of elephants can still be seen passing through the forest track occasionally.

  14. Battle scenes between the tribal and the outsiders, so common in the Central Indian rock paintings are all together absent in the rock paintings of this region. In this aspect it has similarity with the rock paintings of the Upper Chambal valley. (Kumar, G. 1992).

  15. The animals are shown being hunted in herds in the rock paintings of Central India, Europe & Africa but like Mirzapur rock paintings this region’s rock art contains maximum number of solitary hunted animal scenes. (RS.II.C.2, V.B.1 etc.)

  16. Copulation scenes are found in the rock paintings of Bhimbetka, Kathoria and some other rock art sites but like Mirzapur rock art region no such illustration has so far been found in this region. However, depiction of male and female genitals is occasionally found in some painted rock shelters / caves of this region (RS.IV. A.2, A.8 etc.).

  17. Horse riders and humans with bow and arrows and occasionally with spear have been depicted in the rock paintings of this region but chariots or other wheeled vehicles drawn by animals, procession scenes of horse riders and elephant riders and armed warriors are absent. In this regard it has similarity with the rock art of Orrisa (Pradham, S. 1995).

  18. Like some other Indian rock art sites evidences of the Buddhist activities are also present in some of the rock shelters / caves situated in the vicinity of Dewangarh near Sokhodewara village (RS.VI.A.1, VI.A.2, V.B.1, XVI.A.1, VI.A.1). RS. VI.A.1 was a major Buddhist monastery. Several types of the Buddhist wheel (Chakra), figure of Buddha being worshiped by a devotee and other scenes related of Buddhism are depicted on the frontal wall of cave VI.A.1. Some clay and terracotta tablets and seals having Kharoshti and Kharoshti – Brahmi inscriptions have also been found. The clay tablets (mostly fragmented) have image of Buddha with Beej mantra inscribed below the pedestal. The inscriptions are datable to a continuous long span of time i.e. from 2nd century BC to 9th / 10th century A.D. Engraved figure of Buddha surrounded by the Muchalindi Naga on granite boulder has been discovered by me in the Meerganj P.F. of Satgama Block of Kodarma district (Jharkhand).

  19. Another very important and rare features of this rock art site is that these shelters / caves have been used by humans right form the Lower Palaeolithic period down to the present era. This is clearly indicated by the archaelogical evidences found in and around the painted rock shelters / caves such as the Stone Age tools, bone pieces, potsherd, clay / terracotta tablets and rock inscriptions etc. Smooth and shining floors of several rock shelters/ caves are indication that they were occupied continuously / frequently by the primitive man. Unlike other rock art sites there was hardly any requirement of abandoning these rock shelters so frequently as all his basic needs could be fulfilled there throughout the year. There would never be any dearth of animals, edible fruits, leaves, vegetables, water and raw material for making tools. However, only during the extreme summer conditions there might be some problem of fresh water due to drying up of some local water holes / springs. In such situation the group could move temporarily to another nearly water point / river only to return to its ‘permanent homes’ at the outset of monsoon.

 

CONCLUSION

From the above mentioned observations and comparisons it is obvious that the rock art site comprising of the Magadha (Bihar) and its adjoining region (in Jharkhand) possesses several unique and special features. It is extremely rich in content, style, use of colour etc. Selection of only one rock shelter / cave for executing paintings out of the entire cluster, predominance of symbols, phallic human figures, depiction of reptiles and insects, presence of blue colour paintings, engraved figures of Harppan type humped bulls, existence of a very large number of invaluable rock inscriptions in Kharoshti, Kharoshti- Brahmi, Brahmi and Shankh scripts, Buddhist antiquities, depiction of Garur dhawaj (RS.III.A2) and presence of several Stone Age industries (factories) and various other special factor make this rock art region one of the major rock art sites of India. A complete sequence of cultural evolution of man can be observed and studied in most reliable and comprehensive manner. It has potentiality of bridging history with prehistory and throws light on many of the living tribal symbols and rituals (Bhattacharya, D.K, Personal Communication). It is also evident that this rock art region represents different stylistic traits existing in the eastern parts of India. Further explorations and in-depth investigation in the rock art sites of eastern India may further substantiate existence of such different stylistic traits. The rock inscriptions have important bearing on the history of India and furnish evidence of communication between the North West and Vanga through interalia Magadha. These outstanding discoveries have indeed opened a new area of exploration in eastern India (Mukherji, B.N. 1997).

 

REFERENCES

  1. Chandramouli, N. 1994, Rock Art of Andhra Pradesh, South India, Purakala, Vol. 5, No. 1-2, Agra, PP. 50-51.

  2. Bednarik, R.G. 1994, Art Origins, Anthropos 89: 169-180.

  3. District Resource Map – Nawada, Jamui (Bihar), Geological Survey of India, Culcutta, 2001-02.

  4. Gupta S.P., 2006, Personal Communication.

  5. Kumar, G. 1992, Rock Art of the Upper Chambal Valley, Purakala, vol 3, Number 1-2, Agra, pp. 17,57.

  6. Leakey, Richard. 1996, Origin of Humankind, Phoenix, London, pp 113-114.

  7. Mathpal, Y. 1995, Rock Art in Kumaon Himalaya, Aryan Books International, New Delhi, p. 61.

  8. Mukherjee, B.N. 1997, Discovery of Kharoshti and Kharoshti-Brahmi Inscriptions in Bihar, Journal of the Asiatic Society, Vol, XXXIX, No. 3-4, pp. 122,123.

  9. Neumayer, E. 1993, Lines on Stone-the Prehistoric Rock Art of India, Manohar Publishers, New Delhi, p 33.

  10. Neumayer, E. 1994 -95, Rock Paintings from Hazaribagh, Bihar, Puratatva, No. 25, pp. 82-83.

  11. Pande, S.K. 1993, Indian Rock Art, Aryan Books International, New Delhi, p. 151.

  12. Pradhan, S. 1995, Rock Art of Orissa, Purakala, vol. 6, No. 1 & 2, pp. 10, 11.

  13. Prasad, A.K. 2003-04, Important Discoveries of Prehistoric Rock Paintings, Ancient Inscriptions and Stone Age Tool in Southern Bihar and adjoining Jharkhand, Puratattava, No. 34, pp. 68-90

  14. Sankalia, H.D. 1974, Prehistory and Protohistory of India and Pakistan, Deecan College PG and Research Institute, Poona, p.44.

  15. Sundara, A. 2002, Rock Art in Karnataka: Certain geometrical designs, Purakala, Vol. 13 (1-2), p. 53.

  16. Sonawane, V.H. 1997, Upper Palaeolithic Art of India- A fresh look, Purakala, Vol. 8 (1-2), pp.12, 13.

  17. Takakusu, J. 1966, Mahavansa (Reprint), Delhi, p. XXXI.

  18. Tiwari, R. 1990, Rock Paintings of Mirzapur, Eureka Printers, Lucknow, pp. 17, 44.

  19. W

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    akankar, V.S. and Brooks, R.R.R. 1976, Stone Age Paintings of India, D.B. Taraporevala Sons & Co., Bambay, pp. 12, 13.

 

 

 

 

 

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INDO – FRENCH SEMINAR ON PRE-HISTORIC CAVE PAINTINGS INDO – FRENCH SEMINAR ON PRE-HISTORIC CAVE PAINTINGS AT BHOPAL FROM 25TH TO 27TH NOV 2006

February 3rd, 2007

indo – french seminar on pre-historic cave paintingsat bhopal from 25th to 27th nov 2006

 

 

Understanding Some Symbols / Geometric Designs In The Rock Art Of South Bihar And Adjoining Jharkhad In Eastern India

 

 

Dr (Col) A. K. Prasad

 

 

Symbols / geometric designs were vital components of the prehistoric rock paintings, which are a major source of understanding early man and his environment. It is extremely difficult for us now to know the meaning of such symbols made by people living in entirely different environments of the Upper Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic / Chalcolithic periods. Efforts made by researchers to interpret these symbols have not met desirable success so far. It was very encouraging to find pictorial cum epigraphic as well as some other evidences, which enabled us to understand the meaning of at least three symbols / geometric signs painted in the rock shelters discovered by the author in the inaccessible forested hills of South Bihar and the adjoining Jharkhand of eastern India. These are a cross inside a circle, a circle with six spokes having dots in the space between the spokes, and a grid.

Symbols, intricate designs / geometric signs occupy very important place in the rock art all over the world. The symbols include variations / combinations of circles, squares, rectangles, wheel (chakra), cross etc. The intricate designs comprise of rhombic meanders, concentric circles, spirals and their variants covering large space. The geometric signs mainly include grids zigzags, dots, chevrons, curves, nested curves, combinations of triangles and rectangles.

These symbols / signs were the major components of prehistoric art all over the world. One of the biases about the early art development emanating from western Europe is that it consists largely of ‘naturalistic’ images of objects, notable of large animals. This is not true of the Franco-Cantabrian region of western Europe itself where figurative representations are outnumbered more than three times by non-figurative art (Bednarik 1991). It mainly consists of the symbols / geometrical patterns, which are among the most puzzling elements of Upper Paleolithic art. For the most part they have been explained as components of whatever hypothesis prevailed, i.e., hunting, magic or maleness / femaleness dichotomy, or telltale signs of shamanistic art (Leakey 1996).

The symbols were drawn with some purpose, had some definite meaning to the person who made them and other members of the group / society he formed part of. It is also quite possible that far back in prehistory signs and symbols originated as random marks without any phonetic value or similarity with any specific object, just like Arabian tribal symbols or wusum. The wusum are not signs and their interpretations are not meanings, but they represent certain social groups or tribes. It was a system of representing names without using a proper writing system. Thus, through usual marks, although they do not correspond to or show any similarity to a real object and have no phonetic value, the messages were understood. (Khan Majeed, 2007)

In the present modern society with entirely different environment and life-style it would be extremely difficult to know the meaning of such symbols. There are some common symbols / geometric patterns in the rock art sited in different parts of the world but they may not be carrying the same meaning everywhere. We may not fully agree with Christine Pellech’s claim that the motifs of circles and spiral could be proved from the Neolithic till present all over the world as meaning of these symbols was constant in a period of around 15,000 year (Pellech 2001). David Lewis Williams says of prehistoric art ‘Meaning is always culturally bound’. Artistic expression may form an enigmatic thread in the intricate weave of the cultural fabric of the society. Mythology, music and dance are also part of that fabric: each thread contributes meaning to the whole, but by themselves they are necessarily incomplete (Lewis-Williams Let al. 1998).

Even if we were to witness the slice of Upper Paleolithic life in which the cave paintings played their role, would we understand the meaning of the whole? The ancient images we have today are fragments of an ancient story and although, the urge to know what they mean is great, it is wise to accept the probable limits of our understanding (Leakey Richard, 1996). The task of securing correct meanings of the symbols / geometric signs may require very extensive investigation. We would be lucky if we come across some prehistoric symbols / geometric designs, which continued to be used by later generations up to the historic period and even now by some tribal / local communities. We may get some clue of those symbols / signs about which some epigraphic or pictorial information is available or there are communities still practising them.

A major rock art site discovered by me in the extremely remote and inaccessible forested hills of southern Bihar and the adjoining Jharkhand in eastern India contains a large number of symbols, geometric and intricate designs. I have been able to collect some of the pictorial and epigraphic evidences, which decipher meaning of some of these symbols. I also found at least one very frequently used worldwide symbol of ‘grid’ still being used by some of the Santhal bhagats (shamans) while performing certain rituals for locating missing objects. It may not be out of place to give a brief account of this rock art site before describing such symbols and the geometric signs in detail.

Geographical features

This rock art site lies between latitudes 240 40’ to 240 53’ North and longitudes 850 41’ to 860 7’ East in the northern foothills of the Chhota Nagpur Plateau. The nearest railhead is Nawada, a district town of Bihar on the Gaya-Kieul rail section of Eastern Railway and the nearest road-head is Kowakol (40 km south east of Nawada).

Geographically this region lies in the north-eastern part of the Chhota Nagpur Plateau, the northern extension of the Vindyan ranges. This plateau is the meeting point of the oldest rock formations, like granite and gneiss and the comparatively young Vindyan sandstones, and the volcanic basalt (Sankalia, 1974). There are several folded hill ridges running east to west, with narrow valleys and tanrs (uplands). Elevation of the hilltops varies between 300 m and 673 m. The entire area is hilly and densely forested, drained by the south-north flowing Kieul and Sakari rivers and their tributaries, besides several seasonal streams flowing in different directions. There are numerous perennial water points and springs providing water to the tribal population as well as the wild animals throughout the year.

Principal rocks of this region are granite, gneiss and schist with occasional quartz, quartzite and chert. The rock shelters / caves found in abundance are made of huge granite blocks or in some cases the protruding blocks of sedimentaries / gneiss. Quartzite, quartz, basalt and chert were used as the raw material for making various types of Palaeolithic / Mesolithic / Neolithic tools found in this region in abundance.

The climate of this region is the typical monsoon type. Normally the monsoon starts around 15 June and continues till September. The winter season is mild and generally pleasant during the day. The summer season is dry and very hot. It starts in April and reaches its peak around 15 May when heat waves blow during the day for the next 20 days or so.

A large number of wild animals are still found in the forested areas, especially the foothills. These wild animals include tiger (Panthera tigris), leopard (Panthera pardus), sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli), nilgai (Boselamphus tragocamelus), muntjac (muntiacus muntjak), wolf (canis lupus), monkey (macaca sp.), hyna (hyaena hyaena), fox (Vulpes bengalensis), lungur (Presbytis entellus), wild dog (Cuon alpinus), rabbit (Oryctolagus), hare (Lepus nigriscollis), mongoose, porcupine, black buck (Antelope cervicapra), Jackhal (Canis aureus) etc. A variety of birds found in this forested region include peacock (Pavo cristatus), owl, parrot (Bubo bubo), fowl (Gallus gallus), eagle, falcon, partridge, hawk, vulture, dove, harial and several types of other eatable wild birds. The area is also infested with deadly cobras, karaits, vipers, pythons and many other varieties of poisonous and non-poisonous snakes as well as scorpions.

The entire area is hilly and densely forested mainly with sal trees (Shorea robusta). Others trees found are tendu (Diospyros), mahua (Bassia latifolia), khair (Acacia catechu), aonla (Phyllanthus emblica), ber (Zizyphus jujuba), bahera (Terminalia belerica), bamboo (Dondrocalamus strictus), jamun (Eugenia jambolana), semal (Bambaz malabarieum), bel (Aegle marmelos), kari (Holharrena antidysenteria), khirni (Mimusops hexandra), plalas (Buteafrondosa), gular (Ficus glomeratha), mango (Mangifera indica), piar, kalonda, wild variety of burgad etc. In addition to the wild fruits, various edible tubers, roots, seeds, leaves, flowers and wild vegetables are also available throughout the year.

The area is a tribal belt and very thinly populated. The Santhals are the main inhabitants. On the periphery of the forest are small villagers of Bhullas / Kharwars and Ghatwars. Birhors in small bands can also be seen moving from one place to another. They still lead Stone Age life style in this region and entirely depend on hunting of small wilds animals and collection of forest products.

Thus, this rock art region, endowed with a regular supply of food, water, shelter and raw materials for making tools must have been a ‘paradise’ for the Stone Age man. Even now one can survive on the wild fruits, roots, tubers and small animals and birds found in abundance in this region throughout the year.

The site complex comprises 96 rock shelters, caves and open rock surfaces containing a large number of prehistoric and historic rock paintings, petroglyphs as well as Kharoshti, Kharoshti-Brahmi, Brahmi and Shankh inscriptions and also cup marks of various sizes and shape. The region is extremely rich in Stone Age tools as well. Palaeolithic tools are found in abundance around the painted shelters, on the open surfaces as well as in the nallah. At least thirteen Stone Age tool factories have been discovered by me, which are indicators of the region’s richness is this regard. Besides the rock paintings, Stone Age tools and ancient rock inscriptions, there are also four megalith sites and three vast ruins of ancient cities at Devangarh, Bhikhampur Forest and the old Janamthan hilltop.

Rock art of this region has many common features in respect of the subject matter, style, colour, motivation and state of preservation with the rock art of other regions of India, as well as abroad. However, due to geographical, climatic and other factors it has some special features and an identity of its own. Predominance of symbols and geometric designs, phallic human figures, depiction of reptiles and insects, presence of blue colour paintings, engraved figures of Harappan-type humped bulls, existence of a very large number of invaluable rock inscriptions in Kharoshti, Kharoshti-Brahmi and Shankh scripts, Buddhist antiquities, depiction of Garur dhawaj (RS.III.A2) and presence of several Stone Age industries (factories) make this rock art region one of the major rock art sites of India.

One of the most striking features of this rock art region, as mentioned earlier, is very clearly visible predominance of symbols and intricate / geometric designs. Almost every painted rock shelter contains some symbols / signs besides other figures. In some cases, the symbols are accompanied by human figures and Kharoshti, Kharoshti-Brahmi and Brahmi inscriptions mentioning the purpose of drawing a particular symbol in a ritual and even the name of the person who performed the ritual. Since the same or similar types of symbols are also found in the earlier paintings of the Mesolithic / Neolithic periods we may rightly presume that these particular symbols carried almost similar meaning in the Paleolithic period as well as during the historic period. Two of such symbols and geometric signs of a grid depicted in the rock shelters II.A2, III.A2 and I.A.8 of this region are described below-

A Ritualistic Design - A Circle with Spokes and Dots meant for harming enemies

This symbol and other symbols occur in Rock shelter II.A.2. Luckily purpose of drawing the ritualistic symbol and name of the person who performed it is also mentioned in Kharoshti script. Some details about Rock shelter II.A.2 and this ritualistic symbol are given below-

Rock shelter II.A.2- This was discovered by me on 17 June 1996. It is situated quite deep in the Jharnwa Protected Forest. The rock shelter measures 21.9 m in length, 5.4 m in width and 3.3 m in height. There are several other rock shelters (not containing paintings) as well as huge granite boulders in the vicinity and a big stream flows in front of this rock shelter. The surrounding environment looks very mystic and fearsome. Even the local tribals avoid entering this area.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig.2. Rock shelter II.A.2 containing ritualistic symbols

 

In one of the cavities of this rock shelter’s wall there are two circles and a rectangle, each with spokes and dots in between the spokes. At the bottom of the circle animal figure is shown being dragged by a human with help of a rope. All these figures drawn in dark-red colour are superimposed over the earlier paintings in badly faded light yellow colour. The circle measuring 10 cm in diameter in the center of the cavity (between the figures of the animals and uppermost circle) as shown in figure … has six spokes and there are five dots in each space (except one which has six dots) between the spokes.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig.3. A Circle with 6 Spokes and 5 or 6 Dots in the space between the spokes and also Kharoshti inscription on its rim

 

Outside and along the rim of this circle is an ornamental Kharoshti inscriptions in North Western Prakrit language with lower end of the letters (measuring 3 cm to 6 cm long) rooted on the rim. Palaeographically it is datable to c. 2nd century A.D.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 4. Kharoshti inscription (Naha Saga Aminashanam madhatre)

Text: Naha Saga Aminasheanam madhatre (= Nahah Sakah Aminashenam mardhate).

Translation: ‘Naha, the Saka, forsakes (or injures) Aminashena’.

The letters sha and ma, dha and tre (ta + r + e) are joined together to form a design. The novel arrangement of the letters and their elongated appearance has converted the inscriptions into a piece of a calligraphic art (Mukherjee, 1991).

Interpretation: Naha of a Saka fimily must have come to this rock art site from the homeland of the Kharoshti - the north-western section of the Indian subcontinent (now divided into Pakistan and parts of Kashmir, the Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Haryana of India) and Eastern Afganistan to the south-east of the Hindu-Kush. He was perhaps on his way to or from Tamralipti (Tamluk in West Bengal in eastern India), the famous ancient international seaport. In this rock shelter (RS.II.A.2) he performed a local / tribal ritual wishing injury to his enemy called Aminashena. This rare inscription demonstrated that a trader from the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent / eastern Afghanistan, adopted in the 2nd century AD a rural or tribal ritual. Such rites in ancient India are indicated by literature but here such a practice is attested for the first time by a datable epigraph. The diagram with the inscription is the earliest datable epigraphic evidence of such a practice in India (Mukherjee, 1997).

Thus, based on the above pictorial and epigraphic evidences, we can conclude that symbol of a circle with spokes and dots in the space between the spokes was used in rituals meant for harming enemies.

Symbol of a circle with cross inside – meant for gaining prosperity / wealth.

This symbol with some variations occur in some caves / rock shelters particularly in RS.III.A.2, RS.II.C.2 etc. In RS.III.A.2 the name of the ritual for which the symbol has been used and the name of the person who performed it is also mentioned in Kharoshti – Brahmi / Kharoshti scripts. Some details of the Rock shelter III.A.2 containing the symbol are desired below-

RS II.A.2 – This rock shelter measuring 9.75 m in length, 3.21 m in width and 2.73 m in height is made of a huge granite boulder. There are other rock shelters and a huge cave (which looks like a big hall) to the left of it and behind it. A rivulet flows from the southeastern direction in front of it, approximately 50 m away, which almost encircles this shelter. There is a huge granite platform with a flat top surface to the left of this painted rock shelter.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 5. Rock shelter III.A.2

 

The shelter was probably situated on an ancient trade route Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC and I-Ching in 7th century AD also travelled on this forest trade route (Takakusu 1966, also Mahavamsa, Reprint 1993). It must have been an ideal resting place (sarai) for the travellers and also for performing rituals, if required. Walls and ceiling of this rock shelter are full of painted figures, especially geometric and intricate designs and also ancient inscriptions. The paintings of the early historic period and inscriptions in Kharoshti, Kharoshti-Brahmi and Bramhi are superimposed over the earlier Mesolithic / Chalcolithic paintings. It appears that this rock shelter was in use right from the Lower Paleolithic period to at least 8th century AD. This fact is substantiated by the Stone Age tools found in and around the shelter, as well as the inscriptions painted on the walls and ceiling right from the 1st century BC to the 8th century AD. In the extreme right of this rock shelter is a human figure (17 cm by 10 cm) with the symbol of a cross inside a double-banded circle (14 cm in diameter) on the head supported by his upraised left hand and holding an unidentified object in his outstretched right hand. Another human figure is standing to his left, holding an axe in his left hand and looking at him.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 6. Symbol of a circle with cross inside, painted in rock shelter III.A2

 

There is a Kharoshti – Brahmi inscription painted in white colour above the diagram. The first letter of the inscription is Brahmi ‘sri’ and the following two letters are Kharoshti ‘vra’ and ‘ta’. The term ‘Shri – Vrata’ denotes a religions vow, pertaining to the worship of ‘Sri’ or Laxmi i.e. gokddess of wealth. The letters of the term are written in such a manner that they together appear like a design. Palaeograhcally this inscription can be assigned to c. 2nd century A.D. (Mukherjee, 1997). There are fragmented Kharoshti letters to the right of the diagram (from the reader’s point of view). The letters can be read vertically as ‘Thispajhaamma’ which probably refers to the person who performed the ritual ‘Sri Vrata’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 7. Kharoshti-Brahmi inscription painted in white colour above the diagram and Kharoshti inscription on its right..

We find depiction of somewhat similar circles placed on the heads of standing human figures in the paintings of the late Mesolithic and Neolithic Chalcolithic periods as well (RS.II.c2, II.B.a, I.A.8 etc.). It appears that this type of symbol was used in the rituals seeking success in the hunt and future prosperity. Subsequently, during the early historical period, such symbol became popular in the rituals performed for getting favour of the goddess of fortune amongst the rural folk. This, the design or diagram for performing a ritual for securing such favour became well know but here we get the earliest datable epigraphic-cum-pictorial evidence of such a practice.

Symbol of Grids – Used for locating missing things

The grid is a common geometric design found in the rock art of India and abroad. In this rock art region we also find grids of various types drawn in the cave I.A.8 as well as some other shelters such as II.A.1, XI.B.1, XVI.B.1 etc. The cave I.A.8 and the grid depicted in it are shown below-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 8. Cave I.A.8

 

 

<Fig. 9. The grid painted

in cave I.A.8

 

 

 

 

I have not been able to find any inscriptions around such grids which could explain their meanings. However, I was amazed to know from one of the Santhal bhagats (shamans) that the figure of the grid is still used in a particular ritual performed for locating missing men, animals and other items in some Santhal (the largest tribal population in India) communities. A Santhal named Kalesar Kisku, who is not aware of any rock paintings, gave me a very interesting account of a ritual in which grids are still drawn on the ground to find out missing things in this area. The details about the use of grids in a particular ritual narrated by Kisku is mentioned herewith.

Whenever an animal, person or any thing gets lost, the villagers approach their bhagat for recovery of such lost things. The bhagat draws a grid having twelve cells (horizontally as well as vertically) on the ground. He places a twig of the saal tree (Shorea robusta) having three leaves on the grid. Then he puts a green bamboo stick soaked in mustard oil on it. After entering the stage of trance, he starts moving the stick on the grid in various directions. After some time the stick stops moving. The direction and distance of the missing item is ascertained by the bhagat based on the final position of the stick in a particular cell of the grid.

Thus, based on the above account of a living tradition / ritualistic practice we come to know one of the purposes of drawing grids in the prehistoric as well as historic paintings. This is a very small effort trying to understand meaning of some of the symbols used in the rock art of South Bihar and the adjoining Jharkhand discovered by me. If we want to explore the mind of Prehistoric Man we have to put in enormous effort in understanding / deciphering the symbols / geometric designs frequently used by him in the rock shelters and caves allover the world. Detailed study of not only the symbols but also geographical, geomorphologic, cultural, social and various other aspects of the tribes / communities inhabiting in these rock art regions has to be under taken.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am very much indebted to Prof. B.N. Mukherjee for taking so much pain in deciphering the above-mentioned inscriptions and also some other rock inscriptions painted in other rock shelters of this region. My thanks to Shri Kalesar Kisku who gave me the valuable information about the existing tradition of using grids in the rituals performed by the Santhal bhagats (shamans) for finding missing items. I am also thankful to Robert G. Benarik for his encouragements and motivations for further continuing my research on various aspects of the symbols and geometric designs.

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REFERENCES

1. Bednarik, R.G. 1991. Asian Palaeoart and Eurocentric Science. Purakala (Journal of the Indian Rock Art Society) 2:71.

2. Khan, M. 2007. Origin of Symbolism: An Arabian Perspective. Exploring The Mind of Ancient Man (Festschrift to Robert G. Bednarik), edited by: Peddarapu Chenna Reddy. Research India Press, New Delhi. P 243.

3. Leakey, Richard. 1996. Origin of Humankind, London: Phoenix. Pp. 113-14.

4. Lewis-Williams, J. David, and Tomas A. Dowson, The Signs of All Times, Current Anthropology 29 (1988): 202-45.

5. Mukherjee, B.N. 1997. Discovery of Kharoshti and Kharosti-Brahmi Inscriptions in Bihar. Journal of the Asiatic Society, Vol XXXIX, No. 3-4, pp 5-8.

6. Pellech, Christine. 2001. Religious motives of death and rebirth from the Neolithicum till Present all over the world. Migration and Defusion, 8.81.

7. Prasad, A.K. 2003-4. Important Discovery of Prehistoric Rock Paintings, Ancient inscriptions and Stone Age tools in South Bihar and adjoining Jharkhand. In Puratattva (Bulletin of the Indian Archaeological Society), 34: 68-90.

8. Sankalia, H.D. 1974. Prehistoric and Protohistory of India and Pakistan. Deccan College, P.G. & Research Institute, Pune, p.44.

9. Takakusu, J. 1966 (Reprint). Mahavamsa, A Record of the Buddhist Religions as Practised in india and Malay Archipelago (A.D. 671-695), Delhi.

10. The Mahavamsa or the Great Chronicle of Ceylon, 1993 (Reprint), Chapter XIX-6, The coming of the Bodhi-tree (Translated by Geiger, Wilhelm), Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, p. 128.

 

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